April 28, 2002

Black Seminoles Plight

Controversy in Oklahoma between "pure bred" Seminole Indians and "adopted" black slaves continues over federal recompense for lands seized in Florida 148 years ago.

Two legal suits - reported in this space three years ago - were featured last Sunday by the New York Times. Friend C.B. sends me a copy. I respond in today's venue because it is a mixture of history and politics not quite suitable for either of my other, regular columns on those subjects.

New York Times writer Brent Staples emphasizes the plight of Sylvia Davis who is suing the Seminole Nation for being denied a share of the settlement. She traces her lineage back to the famous Billy Bowlegs.

"The real problem," says Staples, "is that Ms. Davis is black in a tribe that is struggling mightily to distance itself from a history in which black Seminole warriors and chiefs had starring roles."

Outcome of the long-pending suit brought by Ms. Davis undoubtedly will influence "reparations" claims by African-Americans for U.S. slavery two hundred years ago. In other words, how black do you have to be for a share in payments for seized land, casino profits or racial discrimination?

For historical background, consider my previous background piece.

* * *

The outcome of two legal cases at Washington, D.C., calls attention to the historical relationship between Florida's 'blood" and "black" Seminoles.

At issue is distribution of $56 million of federal funds awarded the Seminole Nation for seizure of its lands in 1823 and final removal of Indians after the third and last Seminole War battle at Peas (now, Peace) River in 1855.

Today's Seminole Council has refused to distribute any federal funds to descendants of runaway slaves who were harbored by Seminoles before the U.S. Civil War.

So-called black Seminoles say their ancestors had been accepted into the Indian culture, intermarried, sat on tribal councils and were warriors side-by-side with other Seminoles in defending their territory.

Black Seminoles, integrated with today's Indian nation, contend the council's refusal to share federal funds is based on "greed and racism."

Without attempting to judge the merits of conflicting claims, it is interesting to recount the little-known historical background.

Newcomers

Reigning Indians of Florida when the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s were principally of three native-American cultures. They were the Calusa, south of Charlotte Harbor proper; Timucua, in central Florida probably including the north shore of the Harbor; and Apalache, in the northwest part of the state.

By 1700, these Indians were decimated by wars, disease and slave raids. Into this vacuum, Creek Indians of Georgia and Alabama began to emigrate. The name Seminole means "those who go to distant places."

During the American colonial plantation economy, fugitive black slaves sought refuge in the Spanish territory of Florida. Seminoles, relative newcomers themselves, shared land willingly. In theory - strongly held by plantation owners - blacks became "slaves" of the Seminoles also.

Indeed, Seminoles often bought slaves from white owners. These were personal servants, interpreters or bodyguards.

For the most part, however, the relationship between the two races was more like the fief system of medieval Europe. Blacks established their own towns and shared crops with their Seminole "masters." In return, the blacks enjoyed protection from indignant slave owners north of the border.

John Lee Williams explored Florida extensively in 1823 and noted a "fort" of blacks on Pine Island in the Charlotte Harbor complex.

"They are well-armed and refuse to allow Americans to visit the island."

The blacks lived harmoniously with nearby Spanish-Indian fishermen supplying dried fish to Cuba.

A comprehensive description of black Seminoles was set down in 1898 by Charles H. Coe, a Jacksonville, Fla., magazine publisher. His book "Red Patriots" is a standard reference about the Seminoles.

"It seems appropriate to notice the Negroes who lived among the Indians," writes Coe. "These people formed two distinct classes - the maroons, and the more recent fugitive slaves.

"The former had been living with the Seminoles for so long a period that, although they had once been runaway slaves -- or were descended from such. Their identity had now become completely lost.

"The title, 'maroons,' a Spanish word of West Indian origin signifying 'free Negroes,' had been appropriately applied to them by the Spanish settlers in Florida.

"By the Indian agents and officers of our army, they were usually referred to as 'Indian Negroes,' or 'maroon Negroes,' while all others were called 'slaves' or 'runaway slaves.'

"Maroons were thoroughly established among the Seminoles. They had in a few cases intermarried with them and were regarded more as brethren and allies. Most of them, however, were still held by the Indians in a mild form of servitude.

"Their happy and contented condition formed a striking contrast to the hard life and unrequited toil which was the usual lot of slaves under white overseers.

"J.A. Peniere, Indian agent in l821, referred to these Negroes thus: 'They appeared to me to be far more intelligent than those who are in absolute slavery, and have great influence over the Indians. Their number is said to be upwards of three hundred. They fear being again made slaves under the American Government.'

"In the same connection, a staff officer of General Gaines said in 1836: 'The Negro's life among the Indians - compared to that under overseers - is one of luxury and ease. Demands upon him are very trifling. The Indian loves his Negro as much as one of his own children.'"

Black Influence

Blacks were good warriors who fought alongside the Seminoles in opposing intruders. Former slaves could speak English or Spanish and knew the ways of white people. Consequently blacks were prized interpreters and battle strategists.

When the British withdrew from Florida in 1783 after a 20-year reign, they turned over their fort at Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River to the "black" Seminoles.

 A young American general, Andrew "Old Hickory" Jackson, crossed the Florida-Spanish border in 1818 and assaulted the old fort. It was manned by several hundred former slaves and known then as Fort Negro.

A lucky cannon ball hit the fort's gunpowder magazine, killing or wounding all the fort defenders.

Seminoles rushed to help defend their wards but withdrew when they saw the total casualties and destruction. Nevertheless, they launched retaliatory attacks on white settlers north and south of the border. Thus began the First Seminole War.

Spain protested the American "invasion," but was glad a year later to sell Florida to the United States for $5 million and withdrawal of American claims to Texas.

The American Bureau of Indian Affairs attempted in 1826 to pacify the Seminoles by inviting their principal chiefs to Washington for a peace conference. They were wined, dined and introduced to influential Congressmen.

The Seminole delegation consisted of Tuckose Emathala (John Hicks) who was the principal speaker, Itcho Tustenuggee, Mica-nopy, Holato Mico (Bowlegs Cow Keeper, uncle to Mica-nopy and Billy Bowlegs), Fuche Loste Hadjo, and Abraham. The latter was a personal black slave of Mica-nopy and interpreter for the group.

Abraham spoke English, Spanish and Seminole fluently. He had been a personal slave of a Dr. Sierra of Pensacola, Fla., and is believed to be a survivor of the Fort Negro destruction.

Though the Seminoles were impressed with the dignitaries they met in Washington, they were adamant in their intention to remain in Florida.

They demanded that slaves taken from them be returned, that additional land be allotted them in Florida, and that a Bureau proposal for Indian schools be dropped. The Great Spirit, they said, had not intended that Indians should read and write.

Emathala ended negotiations with a famous declaration: "Our navel strings were first cut in Florida, and the blood from them sank into the earth and made the country dear to us."

Upon returning to Florida, Mica-nopy granted Abraham his freedom. Thereafter, Abraham gained the confidence of all the Seminole chiefs and wielded great influence with them for many years. He lived in his own black village Peliklakaha -- known by whites as Abraham's Town" - near the southern end of Withlacoochee Swamp.

When Bowlegs Cow Keeper died following the Washington trip, the Seminole chiefs gave his young wife, Hagar, to Abraham. She bore him several half-breed children.

Capt. John C. Casey, an Army officer (later Indian agent to the Seminoles) at Fort Brooke (Tampa) wrote his brother about Abraham in 1837.

"The Negro Abraham is obviously a great man. Though a black, he has long been appointed 'sense-bearer' (prophet) to King Mica-nopy to whom he formerly belonged," Casey stated.

"Abraham is of ordinary stature, rather thin, with a slight inclination forward like a Frenchman of the old school. His countenance is one of great cunning and penetration. He always smiles, and his words flow like oil. His conversation is soft and low, but very distinct, with a most genteel emphasis. He is a full-blooded Negro and has been all his life among the Indians.

"General Jessup, commander of Ft. Brooke, also speaks of Abraham as 'a good soldier and an intrepid leader. He is a chief and the most cunning and intelligent Negro we have here.'"

Dade Massacre

Abraham led a company of 50 black warriors - among a total Seminole force of 160 - in the 1835 ambush of Major Francis Dade and his column of 108 soldiers. The Army force was on its way to reinforce  Ft. King (Ocala).

Unhappily, Dade's route headed directly toward Abraham's town.

Only two American soldiers lived to tell the tale. The "Dade Massacre" ignited the Second Seminole War.

The U.S. Army in Florida retaliated in force. Indian towns were leveled and crops destroyed. Hundreds of Seminoles - full blooded or black - were killed. Many of those remaining were rounded up for removal to western reservations.

Abraham recognized the Seminole cause was hopeless. He agreed in 1839 to resettle with his family at Fort Gibson, Oklahoma. Now 60 years old, Abraham drank heavily and withdrew from Indian affairs.

By 1855, the pressure on Seminoles to move to western reservations was backed up with military pressure. Billy Bowlegs, nephew of Bowlegs Cow Keeper, was the principal chief of a dwindling Seminole nation.

After the Battle of Peace River - in which his war chief Oscen Tustenugg was killed - Bowlegs consented to move to an Oklahoma reservation. All but 65 Seminoles and 20 blacks went with him. Those remaining in Florida took up peaceful residence in the Everglades near Fort Myers and Fisheating Creek west of Lake Okeechobee.

Black Seminoles in the final removal became valued scouts in the U.S. Army in Oklahoma and Texas. For details and photographs about them, I recommend "Black Seminoles" by Kenneth W. Porter.

Bowlegs was appointed captain of an Indian regiment in the Union Army at Arkansas. He led 60 actions "with distinction" against pro-Confederate Creek and Cherokee Indians. He died in 1864 of smallpox and is buried in the National Military Cemetery near Fort Gibson.  

Author: Lindsey Williams

cutline - 3 col. - Indian group

Illustration provided by National Archives.

[This woodcut appearing in an 1826 Washington, D.C., newspaper portrays the Seminole delegation seeking peace and concessions. Principal Chief Mica-nopy is third from left. Seated to his left is Bowlegs Cow Keeper (uncle of Billy Bowlegs). Standing behind them is their interpreter, Abraham, a black slave of Mica-nopy. ]

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